Grammar Handbook

Thank you for using the Grammar Handbook at the Writers' Workshop, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. This Handbook explains and illustrates the basic grammatical rules concerning parts of speech, phrases, clauses, sentences and sentence elements, and common problems of usage.

Parts of Speech

Nouns

Nouns Defined

A noun is any word that defines a person, place, or thing in a sentence.

Nouns give names to:

Concrete Things: Carlos lost his keys.

Abstract Ideas: Her personal philosophy is odd.

Abstract Qualities: She says I lack sensitivity.

Feelings: I feel great joy when I run.

Actions: Parking can be difficult on campus.

People: Steve Lamos is our instructor.

Animals: What kind of bear is Fozzie Bear?

Places: The University of Illinois is located in Champaign-Urbana.

Common & Proper Nouns

Nouns can be divided into two categories: common nouns and proper nouns.

Common Nouns name ordinary things that are not specific or important enough to be capitalized (except at the beginning of a sentence). Common nouns refer to any of a class of people places or things. Common nouns include most of the nouns used to name things.

A few examples:

key

flower

dog

city

Proper Nouns name particular people, places, or things, that are special enough to be ALWAYS CAPITALIZED.

A few examples:

President Clinton

Georgia

Sony

Catholic

Pacific Ocean

Melissa

McDonalds

Walnut Street

Mass and Count Nouns

Every noun can also be distinguished as count or mass.

Count Nouns

Count nouns are nouns that can be quantified or counted with a number.

A few examples:

-Names of persons, animals, plants, insects, and their parts: a boy, a kitten, a rose, an ear, three boys, seven kittens, twelve roses, two ears

-Objects with a definite shape: a building, a balloon, a house, an octopus, four buildings, six balloons, four houses, two octopi

-Units of measurement and words of classification: a gram, a pound, a piece, a lump, an item, a bit, a family, a state, a language, a phrase a word

-Some abstract words: a hindrance, a scheme, an idea, a plan, a taboo, a rest

Tests for Count Nouns:

-Count nouns can be quantified by a number

-They have singular and plural forms.

-They can use a, an, or one as a modifier.

-They can use "many" as a modifier.

Mass Nouns

Mass Nouns are uncountable by a number. Mass nouns are quantified by a word that signifies amount.

A few examples:

Materials, Food, Metals, and natural qualities: bread, cotton, wood, lightness, adolescence

Names of liquids, gases, and substances made of many small particles: cappuccino, oil, smoke, oxygen, rice, sugar, salt, cement, gravel

Names of Languages: English, Spanish, French, Latin, Sanskrit, Chinese

Most gerunds : looking, listening, swimming, running, anticipating

Remember that a number can not be used to quantify a mass noun. Incorrect: four woods, one rice, three courages)

To measure or classify mass nouns use "of" after a measurement: a foot of wood, a pound of rice, an ounce of courage, a bar of chocolate, a piece of music, a bag of money

Tests for Mass Nouns:

Mass nouns are quantified by an amount rather than a number.

They have only one form (singular).

They cannot have "a," "an," or "one" before them as modifiers.

They can use "much" as a modifier.

Pronouns

Pronouns Defined

Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns.

Personal Pronouns are the most commonly used pronouns.

Singular personal pronouns: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it
Plural personal pronouns: we, us, you, they, them

Example: John baked a cake for Eileen = He baked it for her.

Possessive Pronouns are personal pronouns that show ownership or possession.

Singular possessive pronouns: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its
Plural possessive pronouns: our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs

Example: I found John's hat = I found his hat.

Demonstrative Pronouns call attention to their antecedents. An antecedent is the word or words to which a pronoun refers.

Singular demonstrative pronouns: this, that
Plural demonstrative pronouns: these, those

Example: The yellow car is his = That is his car.

Reflexive Pronouns reflect the action back to the noun or pronoun that has just been named (ends in -self or -selves).

Singular reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself...
Plural reflexive pronouns: ourselves, themselves, yourselves

Example: I will find it myself.

Hint: When a pronoun is used in a sentence, it should always be clear to what or to whom the pronoun is referring. Too many pronouns in a sentence can be very confusing:

He went there to do that, but she didn't know where he was.

Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement

A pronoun is a substitute for a noun. The pronouns or nouns that they refer to are called antecedents. A pronoun and its antecedent are in agreement if they are both singular or both plural.

Example: Dr. Morganstern finished his rounds.

Frequent misuse of plural pronouns occur with two types of singular antecedents:
indefinite pronouns and generic nouns.

Indefinite Pronouns refer to nonspecific persons or things. They include:

any
either
everything
no one
each
anybody
everybody
neither
someone
anyone
everyone
none
something

Example: In class everyone performs at his or her [not their] level of ability.

Generic Nouns represent a typical member or any member of a group, such as a typical student or any lawyer.

Example: Every student must pull all-nighters regularly if he or she wants to excel.

To correct a mistakenly plural pronoun referring to a singular general noun, you can do one of the three things mentioned above.

Suggestions for Working with Generic Nouns

1) Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural. Collective nouns include such words as: jury, committee, crowd, family, audience, couple, troop, team, class.

Ordinarily the group functions as a unit, so the noun should be considered singular; however, if the members of the group function as individuals, the noun should be treated as plural.

Example: The O.J. Simpson jury has reached its decision.
Compare: The Illini crowd clapped their hands.

2) Compound antecedents connected by "and" should be treated as plural.

Example: Jack and Jill climbed up a hill and fetched their pail of water.

3) When compound antecedents are connected by "or" or "nor" (or by "either...or" or "neither...nor"), make the pronoun agree with the nearer antecedent.

Examples:
Either Desi or Lucy should be fired from her job.
Neither the engineering student nor the biology majors could remember their schedules.

Correcting Agreement Problems

To correct a mistakenly plural pronoun referring to a singular indefinite pronoun or generic noun, you can do one of three things:

1) Replace the plural pronoun with he or she or [his or her.] Example: When someone has been drinking, he or she is probably acting dumb.

2) Make the antecedent plural. Example: When frat boys have been drinking, they are probably acting dumb.

3) Rewrite the sentence so that no problem of agreement exists. Example: A frat boy who has been drinking is probably acting dumb. Noun and Pronoun Case Case refers to how nouns and pronouns are used in relation to the other words in a sentence. The three cases are subjective, objective, and possessive. Subjective Case Subjective case is sometimes called the nominative case. A noun or pronoun is in the subjective when it is used as the subject of the sentence or as a predicate noun. A predicate noun follows a form of the "be" verb, and it renames the subject of the sentence. In the following examples, nouns and pronouns in the subjective case are in blue. I hope to finish my paper tonight. Valerie danced in the statewide competition. He is a clown. (The word clown is a predicate noun) Objective Case A noun or pronoun is in the objective case when it is used as a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of the preposition. Dad prepared the dinner. Our dog crawled under the fence. Mom gave us the money. Possessive Case A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case when it is used to show ownership of an object: Mom washed Valerie's leotard. Where did you find her book?

Subjective	Objective	Possessive
I	Me	My, Mine
You	You	Your, Yours
He	Him	His
She	Her	Her, Hers
It	It	Its
We	Us	Our, Ours
They	Them	Their, Theirs

Verbs

Principal Parts of Verbs

The three principal parts of verbs are the present tense form, the past tense form, and the past participle. (The present participle or "-ing" form is sometimes considered a fourth principal part.)

Present Tense indicates an action in the present:

Now the class begins.
She walks to class.

Past Tense indicates an action that occurred in the past:

We wanted to see the show.
The little girl blew a bubble.

The Past Participle can be used as an adjective or modifier. It is typically formed by adding 'd' or 'ed' to the base form. Many times, this form is identical to the past tense of the verb:

Since the dishes were washed, we left the kitchen.
The broken vase sat unceremoniously on the kitchen table.

Common Mistakes

There are many irregular verbs (about 250) that confuse writers when forming past tense and past participles. Here is a sample of irregular verbs.

Present Tense	Past Tense	Past Participle
drink	drank	drunk
be	was, were	been
eat	ate	eaten
see	saw	seen
swim	swam	swum

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary or helping verbs are verbs that are used to help form verb phrases but cannot do so independently. There are four basic auxiliary verb groups:

1. to be
2. to have
3. modal auxiliaries
4. to do

To Be
This auxiliary verb is used in the progressive tenses and passive voice:

Progressive Tense:
You are kicking.
You were kicking.
You have been kicking.

Passive Voice:
You are kicked.
You were kicked.
You have been kicked.

To Have
This verb is used as an auxiliary in the perfect tense:

I have finished my paper.
I had finished my paper.
I have been finished with my paper.

Modal Auxiliaries
These auxiliaries affect the mood of the verb; that is, they determine whether a verb is a fact, desire, possibility, or command. They are most commonly used to represent degrees of freedom or severity.

Most common modal auxiliaries:
will, shall, can, may, need (to), dare, would, should, could, might, must, ought (to)

Ability: I can run.
Necessity: I must run.
Obligation: I ought to run.
Permission: I may run.

To Do
This verb is used when the main verb of the sentence requires aid of an auxiliary, but there is no other helping verb that will fit. It is often used in questions, negative or emphatic statements:

Does he drive?
He drives, doesn't he?
Despite his flat tire he does drive.

Perfect and Progressive Verb Forms

The perfect form is the verb tense used to indicate a completed, or "perfected," action or condition. Verbs can appear in any one of three perfect tenses: present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect.

Verbs in the perfect form use a form of "have" or "had" + the past participle. (It is the form of the helping verb that indicates the tense.)

Present Perfect: I have finished my homework already.
Past Perfect: He had watched TV for an hour before dinner.
Future Perfect: Nancy will have finished by the time her parents return.

The progressive form is a verb tense used to show an ongoing action in progress at some point in time. It shows an action still in progress. Verbs can appear in any one of three progressive tenses: present progressive, past progressive, and future progressive.

The verbs in the progressive form use a form of "to be" + the present participle (an -ing verb). (It is the form of the helping verb that indicates the tense.)

Present Progressive: The cake is baking slowly.
Past Progressive: The trees were waving back and forth.
Future Progressive: The children will be laughing.

The perfect and progressive forms can be combined, as in the following examples (again, the form of the helping verbs indicates the tense):

Present Perfect Progressive: I have been running for an hour.
Past Perfect Progressive: I had been running for an hour.
Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been running for an hour.

Regular and Irregular Verbs

Verbs are subdivided into two groups, regular verbs and irregular verbs, on the basis of how their past tense and past participles are formed.

Regular Verbs
Most verbs are regular verbs. Regular verbs are those whose past tense and past participles are formed by adding a -d or an -ed to the end of the verb. To roll is a good example of a regular verb:

roll rolled rolled

Sometimes the last consonant must be doubled before adding the -ed ending. For example:

plan planned planned

Irregular Verbs
There is no formula to predict how an irregular verb will form its past-tense and past-participle forms. There are over 250 irregular verbs in English. Although they do not follow a formula, there are some fairly common irregular forms. Some of these forms are:

break broke broken
cut cut cut
run ran run
meet met met
come came come
repay repaid repaid
swim swam swum
be was/were been

Distinguishing Regular and Irregular Verbs
Dictionaries are perhaps the most valuable tool one can use in distinguishing between regular and irregular verbs. If only one form of the verb is listed, the verb is regular. If the verb is irregular, the dictionary will list the principal parts of the other forms.

Verb Mood

Verbs may be in one of three moods: indicative, imperative, or subjunctive. The indicative mood is used to make factual statements. The imperative mood makes a request or a command. The subjunctive mood can express a doubt or a wish using clauses beginning with if or that; it can also express a request, demand, or proposal in a clause beginning with that.

Indicative mood

Present indicative: Jerry Seinfeld laughs on television.
Past indicative: Jerry laughed on television.
Future indicative: Jerry will laugh on television tomorrow.

Imperative mood

Notice how much sharper the picture appears.
Call her tomorrow.
Take a seat!

Subjunctive mood

He talks about grammar as if he were an expert. (Expresses doubt or an idea contrary to fact.)

I wish that I were a fast runner. (Expresses a wish.)

Present Subjunctive

The professor requests that the paper be turned in on time. (Expresses a request.)

The rules require that each contestant submit an entry form. (Expresses a demand.)

I suggest that the heat be reduced. (Illustrates a proposal.)

Auxiliary verbs could, would, and should might also express the subjunctive mood, especially when one expresses a condition contrary to fact.

Examples:

Past subjunctive	Condition contrary to fact
If the forecaster were correct, I would be prepared.	If the forecaster could be correct, I would be prepared.
If the company were to fly her, she would interview.	If the company would fly her, she would interview.
If Joe were to marry Ann, he would be happy.	If Joe should marry Ann, he would be happy.

Verbs that are often followed by that clauses with subjunctive verbs: announce, ask, as if, as though, demand, determine, indicate, insist, move, order, prefer, propose, recommend, request, require, and suggest.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives Defined

Adjectives are words that are used to modify a noun.
Example: green grass (the adjective "green" describes the noun "grass")

There are three kinds of adjectives known as the positive, comparative, and superlative forms, as in green, greener, greenest.

Adjectives can be grouped into seven categories:
1) nouns as adjectives
2) adjectives that modify an object
3) numbers as adjectives
4) pronouns and articles as adjectives
5) multiple adjectives
6) compound adjectives
7) adjectives used as nouns

1. Nouns as adjectives

a. A noun can be used to qualify (or describe) another noun, as in goose feathers, in which case there are no comparative or superlative forms such as "gooser" or "goosest."
b. Some nouns can be made into an adjective by adding an ending such as -ish, -like, -ly, -y, -en, -al, -ar, -ory.

Examples:
He spoke in a childish manner.
My, what a womanly figure you have.
His teeth were yellowish in color.
He was sitting at a wooden desk.
He works at the Postal Office.
What a spectacular show!
Our program is going through a transitory period.

Oftentimes, the endings -en and -al will be dropped, and the noun form will be used by itself, as in oak table, wool shirt, and, coast line.

2. Adjectives that modify an object

a. Adjectives such as like and worth may be used to modify objects.
Examples: Stale bread tastes like Styrofoam.
Your textbook is worth one dollar.

b. Sometimes prepositions like "of" and "with" are used to form adjectives.
Examples: She is fearful of dogs.
Sometimes parents can be impatient with you.

3. Numbers as adjectives

Any words related to number are considered adjectives, including "two," "twenty," "few," "many," "dozen," "third," and so on.

4. Pronouns and articles as adjectives

a. Pronouns such as "this," "that," and "those" used to modify a noun are called demonstrative adjectives.

b. Possessive pronouns such as "my," "your," and "his" used to modify a noun are called possessive adjectives.

c. Articles such as "a," "an," and "the" are also adjectives.

5. Multiple adjectives

When using more than one adjective to modify a noun, the adjectives may be separated by a conjunction or by commas.

Example:
Your teeth are strong and beautiful.]

You have strong, beautiful teeth.

6. Compound adjectives

a. Nouns and adjectives may be combined to modify another noun, in which case the word can be hyphenated (although the hyphen is often a matter of personal preference).

Examples:
He is a warm-hearted fellow.
I can be empty-headed sometimes.

b. Past participles of verbs can also be used as adjectives, such as native born, foreign made, soft spoken, warmly dressed, well behaved, and so on.

7. Adjectives used as nouns

It is possible to use an adjective as a noun by simply using the adjective as the subject and omitting the noun it modifies. Usually, adjectives used as nouns refer to a specific quality shared by a group (the pleasant) or a specific human characteristic shared by a group of people (the wise).

Examples: We moderns are to the ancients what the poor are to the rich.

Adverbs Defined

An adverb is a word or group of words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They come in three different classes: simple, interrogative, and conjunctive.

A simple adverb is used as a simple modifier telling manner, time, place, degree, or number.

Examples:
Eric jumped yesterday.
The table belongs there.
He seemed extremely edgy.
She came to the party first.

An interrogative adverb asks a question.

Example: Where have you been?

A conjunctive adverb connects independent clauses. Some common conjunctive adverbs are accordingly, also, anyhow, besides, consequently, however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, still, then, therefore, and yet. Use a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb to join the two clauses.

Example: Michael did not do his homework; however, he still received good grades.

Common Mistakes

Most is an adjective, but almost is an adverb
Easy is an adjective, but easily is an adverb
Good is an adjective, but well is an adverb

Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparative:: the second or middle degree of comparison in adjectives or adverbs
Superlative: the third or highest degree of comparison in adjectives or adverbs

The comparative and superlative degrees are formed by adding the -er and -est suffix to adjectives and adverbs with a single consonant for an ending.

	Comparative	Superlative
big	bigger	biggest
soon	sooner	soonest

Adjectives and adverbs ending in -y drop the -y and add an -ier in the comparative degree and an -iest in the superlative degree:

	Comparative	Superlative
dry	drier	driest
early	earlier	earliest

Adjectives and adverbs ending in the silent or mute -e drop the ending -e and add the -er for the comparative and the -est for the superlative:

	Comparative	Superlative
pale	paler	palest
free	freer	freest

Degrees of comparison can also be distinguished with the use of more and most: more clever; most clever

Irregular adjectives:

	Comparative	Superlative
good	better	best
bad	worse	worst
much	more	most
little	less	least
far	farther further	farthest furthest
old	older elder	elder eldest

Irregular adverbs:

	Comparative	Superlative
badly	worse	worst
far	farther further	farthest furthest
little	less	least
much	more	most
well	better	best

Conjunctions

Conjunctions Defined

Conjunctions are grammatical connectors that link words, phrases or clauses. A conjunction can indicate the relationship between the elements that it connects in the sentence. Without these, we would not see the relationship. There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, and subordinating.

Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses that have equal or the same grammatical functions, The coordinating conjunctions include and, but, or, yet, nor, for, and so.

Examples:
Connecting nouns: I will buy a coat and a hat.
Connecting verbs: I did not call nor write my mother.
Connecting adjectives: The boy was nice but weird.
Connecting dependent clauses: If the students show and the teacher is prepared, class will be productive.
Connecting independent clauses: Ten thousand students applied to the college, but only six thousand were admitted.

Correlative Conjunctions
A correlative conjunction is a coordinating conjunction that works in pairs to connect elements in a sentence. The correlative conjunctions include: both...and, not...but, not only...but also, either...or, neither...nor, although...yet, whether...or.

Examples:
Connecting nouns: The name of the store is not Food World but Food Land .
Connecting adjectives: The place of employment shall provide both health and life insurance.
Connecting prepositional phrases: Orange juice is made either by squeezing oranges or by mixing a can of frozen concentrate.
Connecting independent clauses: Not only did the cat jump over the fence, but he also scratched the paint.

Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction connects elements with different grammatical functions, usually a dependent and an independent clause. The subordinating conjunctions include after, in case, unless, although, in that, until, as, now that, when, as if, once, whenever, as though, since, where, because, so, whereas, before, so that, whether, even though, than, which, except that, that, while, however, though, who/whom, if.

Examples:
He acts as though he is has done something wrong.
I am sure that the teacher will let class out early.
When the bell rings, the students must sit down.
Since the cat ran away, the girl has been sad.

Conjunctive Adverbs

A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that connects independent clauses. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are: however, moreover, nevertheless and therefore.

Usage
Conjunctive adverbs require semicolons:
"The operation will probably be successful; however, I should tell you I'm nervous about performing it," said Dr. Gonzo.

Common Pitfalls
Conjunctive adverbs are often confused with coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, for, nor, or, yet or while. One difference is that coordinating conjunctions join clauses of equal rank and conjunctive adverbs do not. Another difference is that conjunctive adverbs are not true linking devices themselves, as indicated by their needing semicolons:

I don't have enough butter for my batter; therefore, I'll buy butter to make my batter better.

Flexibility
The flexibility of the conjunctive adverb in the sentence also indicates they aren't true linking devices like coordinating conjunctions. For example, the second part of this sentence could also be written:

...I will therefore buy some butter to make my batter better.

Other Parts of Speech

Prepositions

A preposition is a word or group of words that shows the relationship--in time, space, or some other senses--between its object (the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition) and another word in the sentence:

Allison put the bag in her locker.
("In" shows the spatial relationship between the verb "put" and the object of the preposition "locker.)

Jamie kicked the ball through the goalposts. ("Through" indicates the direction which the ball traveled.)

There are three kinds of prepositions, simple, compound, and phrasal. The following are representative examples of each:

1. Simple: after, except, off, with
2. Compound: alongside, throughout, underneath
3. Phrasal: across from, near to, in place of

A list of most of the common prepositions in English:

aboard, about, above, according to, across, across from, after, against, along, alongside, alongside of, along with, amid, among, apart from, around, aside from, at, away from, back of, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, but, by, by means of, concerning, considering, despite, down, down from, during, except, except for, excepting for, from, from among, from between, from under, in, in addition to, in behalf of, in front of, in place of, in regard to, inside, inside of, in spite of, instead of, into, like, near, near to, of, off, on, on account of, on behalf of, onto, on top of, opposite, out, out of, outside, outside of, over, over to, owing to, past, prior to, regarding, round, round about, save, since, subsequent to, together, with, through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up, up to, upon, with, within, without

A prepositional phrase includes the preposition, the object of the preposition, and the modifiers of the object. It may function as an adverb or an adjective:

The cat climbed on the couch.
(The phrase describes "climbed," so it's an adverb.)

The park by the lake is a great place to play volleyball.
(The phrase acts as an adjective because it gives more information about the park.)

Interjections

Interjections are words or expressions which are inserted into a sentence to convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention. Interjections are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence. They have no grammatical connection to the sentence in which they occur; therefore, interjections may stand alone. In addition, if an interjection is mild, it is followed by a comma. If it is strong, it is followed by an exclamation point. In no instance should an interjection with a comma or exclamation point be followed by a period or comma respectively.

Examples include words like: Oh, Darn, Hey, and Well.

The following are two examples of the proper usage of interjections in sentences:
Well, I suppose I should stay home and study this weekend.
Darn! I broke my fingernail.

Noun and Verb Phrases

A noun phrase is a made up of a noun and all its modifiers. It can function in a sentence as a subject, an object, or a complement. Some noun phrases begin with an infinitive (to go) or a gerund (going); this type of noun phrase is always singular:

To sail the seven seas was her lifelong dream. (subject)
Dieters prefer green salad. (object)
A ham sandwich is a popular lunch. (complement)

A verb phrase is a phrase (a group of related words lacking a subject or a verb) that consists of a main verb plus one or more helping verbs.

Some common helping verbs are:
to be (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been)
to have (has, have, had)
to do (do, does, did)
others: may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, would

Helping verbs add meaning to other verbs. Some helping verbs change the time expressed by the key verb. Others, such as should and might, are used to indicate obligation, possibility, ability, or permission:

The student is going to Florida for Spring Break.
The firm will probably not hire an accountant today.
You should edit your own compositions.

Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase is a group of words including a preposition and a noun, pronoun, or group of words used as a noun. They are fragments that usually do not stand alone, except in commands like "At once!" or "On your feet!"

Kinds of Phrases
There are two kinds of prepositional phrases: adjective phrases and adverb phrases.
An adjective phrase modifies a noun or pronoun. It always comes immediately after the noun or pronoun it modifies:

Joe is the student with the highest grade.
("with the highest grade" modifies student.)

An adverb phrase modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. It is used to tell when, where, how, or to what extent about the word it modifies:

Megan put her bird in its cage.
("in its cage" tells where about the verb put.)

Two or More Phrases
When two or more prepositional phrases follow each other, they may modify the same word, or one phrase may modify the object in the preceding phrase:

They arrived at the airport on time.
(Both phrases modify arrived; "at the airport" tells where and "on time" tells when.)

Chicago is on the northeast tip of Illinois .
("on the northeast tip" modifies "is"; "of Illinois " modifies "tip.")

Preposition or Adverb?
Many words can be either prepositions or adverbs; you can distinguish prepositions by their objects.

Preposition: The bird flew out the window.
("window" is the object of "out.")

Adverb: We went out last night.
("out" has no object.)

Prepositional Phrase or Infinitive Phrase?
Prepositional phrases can be confused with infinitive phrases. "To" followed by a verb is an infinitive, but "to" followed by a noun or pronoun is a prepositional phrase

Verbals and Verbal Phrases

Verbals are verb forms which act as another part of speech in a sentence (i.e. as adjectives, nouns, and adverbs).

Verbal phrases are verbals and any of the verb form's modifiers, objects or complements. The three types of verbal phrases are participial, gerund, and infinitive phrases.

1) Participial Phrases are present participles or past participles and any modifiers, objects or complements. Participial phrases contain verbs which act as adjectives in a sentence.
Examples:
Singing very softly, the boy lulled his baby brother to sleep.
(participial phrase as adjective modifying boy)
The girls, frightened by the police car's headlights, quickly came down from the school's roof.
(participial phrase as adjective modifying "girls")

2) Gerund Phrases contain verbs ending in -ing and any modifiers, objects, or complements. Gerund phrases act as nouns in a sentence. They can act as the subject or object of a verb, as a predicate nominative, and as the object of a preposition.
Examples:
Waiting for his grades drove him crazy.
(gerund phrase as subject of verb)
The woman denied knowing her own husband.
(gerund phrase as object of verb)
He thought he could escape from his problems by running away.
(gerund phrase as object of preposition)
Making many acquaintances is cultivating future friendships.
(gerund phrases as subject and as predicate nominative)

3) Infinitive Phrases contain verbals consisting of to followed by a verb and any modifiers, objects, or complements. Infinitive phrases usually act as nouns, but they can also act as adjectives and adverbs.
Examples:
To live in Boston eventually is his main goal in life.
(infinitive phrase as subject)
Quentin Tarentino loves to babble during interviews.
(infinitive phrase as object of verb)
Do you have any clothes to donate at the homeless shelter?
(infinitive phrase as adjective modifying clothes)
She went home to visit her family.
(infinitive phrase as adverb modifying went)

Clauses

Independent and Dependent Clauses

A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a predicate. There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, while a dependent clause must be accompanied by an independent clause.

Independent Clauses
Two independent clauses can be connected by:

a coordinating conjunction: Today is Tuesday and our papers are due Wednesday.

a conjunctive adverb or another transitional expression: I need to study for my test; in fact I am going to the library now. (In this case, use a semicolon to separate the two clauses.)

correlative conjunction: George not only finished his paper on time, but he also got an A+.

semicolon: This is one of English classes; Shakespeare is my other.

colon (sometimes): She received the assignment: it is to be turned in next Friday.

Dependent Clauses
Dependent clauses can be either adjective, adverb, or noun clauses based on how they are used in a sentence.

Adjective (or relative) clauses modify nouns or pronouns and, in order to make the relationship clear, follow the noun or pronoun they modify. Example: Our class, which meets at 9:00 in the morning, discusses the importance and use of grammar in our schools. (An adjective clause modifies the noun class.)

Adverb clauses modify single words (verbs, adjectives, or adverbs) or entire phrases or clauses. They always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Adverb clauses answer the questions how? where? when? why? and to what extent? Adverb clauses appear in any of several places in the sentence as long as the relationship is clear and its position conveys the intended purpose. Example: Confused, after class was over, Susan decided to meet with her group to discuss the paper. (An adverb clause modifies the participle confused.)

Noun clauses act as nouns in sentences (subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, or compliments). They may begin with a relative pronoun or by, whether, when, where, why, or how. Examples: Whoever wins the race will receive the trophy. (A noun clause serves as the subject of the sentence.) This grade is what I deserve. (A noun clause serves as the subject complement.)

Adjective, Adverb, and Noun Clauses

A clause is a group of related words which has both a subject and a predicate. A clause is different from a phrase because a phrase is a group of related words which lacks either a subject or a predicate or both.

Adjective clauses modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective clause nearly always appears immediately following the noun or pronoun.

To test for adjective clauses there are a couple of questions that you can ask. Which one? What kind of? Most adjective clauses begin with who, whom, which or that. Sometimes the word may be understood. The words that or who, for example, might not specifically be in the sentence, but they could be implied. To determine the subject of a clause ask who? or what? and then insert the verb.
Example:
The book that is on the floor should be returned to the library.

Occasionally, an adjective clause is introduced by a relative adverb, usually when, where or why.
Example:
Home is the place where you relax.

Adverb clauses usually modify verbs, in which case they may appear anywhere in a sentence. They tell why, where, under what conditions, or to what degree the action occurred or situation existed. Unlike adjective clauses, they are frequently movable within the sentence.
Example:
When the timer rings, we know the cake is done.
OR
We know the cake is done when the timer rings.

Adverb clauses always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions introduce clauses and express their relation to the rest of the sentence.

Noun clauses are not modifiers, so they are not subordinators like adjectives and adverbs, and they cannot stand alone. They must function within another sentence pattern, always as nouns. A noun clause functions as a subject, subject complement, direct object or object of a preposition.

A noun clause usually begins with a relative pronoun like that, which, who, whoever, whomever, whose, what, and whatsoever. It can also begin with the subordinating conjunctions how, when, where, whether, why.
Example:
Whoever wins the game will play in the tournament.

Relative Clauses

A relative clause acts as a clause that modifies a noun or pronoun. Relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, which, that, whose). Relative clauses can either be restrictive or nonrestrictive.

Restrictive Relative Clauses
A restrictive relative clause is essential in order to complete the meaning of the main clause.
Examples:
Where is the girl who is going?
That's the one which I like best.
Is he the one whose house is on fire?

Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses

A nonrestrictive relative clause adds definition to the main clause, but is not necessary for meaning. Nonrestrictive relative clauses are set off by commas.
Examples:
That girl, who is going to the concert, has a green dress.
The orange car, which is my favorite, has seating for six.
The tuba player, whose house is on fire, just went to band practice.

Common Usage Problems

Beware of sentence fragments when trying to use a relative clause:

He was a loser. Who never thought he would win. [incorrect]
He was a loser who never thought he would win. [revised]


The relative pronoun should immediately follow the antecedent in a relative clause. Violating this rule leads to confusion:

She saw the guy who dated Sheila who has a red mohawk. [unclear]
Does Sheila or the guy have a red mohawk? [confusing]

Revised:
She saw the guy, who has a red mohawk, who dated Sheila.

Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses

A modifying clause can be either restrictive or non-restrictive.

A restrictive modifying clause (or essential clause) is an adjective
clause that is essential to the meaning of a sentence because it
limits the thing it refers to. The meaning of the sentence would
change if the clause were deleted. Because restrictive clauses are
essential, they are not set off by commas.

All students who do their work should pass easily.

The car that I want is out of my price range.

The gas company will discontinue our service unless we
pay our bills by Friday.

A non-restrictive modifying clause (or nonessential clause) is an
adjective clause that adds extra or nonessential information to a
sentence. The meaning of the sentence would not change were the
clause omitted. Non-restrictive modifying clauses are usually set off
by commas.

Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote "The Raven," is a great
American poet.

Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony until 1898, when it was
ceded to the United States .

Common Usage Problems

Homophones

Homophones are words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings. As a result, these words are often confused in writing.

Examples:

Accept (to receive): "I accept your apology."
Except (excluded from): "I like everyone except her."

Capital (economic resources OR the city where lawmakers meet)
Capitol (the building where lawmakers meet)

Principal (head of a school): "The principal is your pal."
Principle (a moral or fundamental truth): "That is against my principles."

There (meaning "in that place"): "The book is over there."
Their (possessive pronoun "belonging to them"): "Their book"
They're (contraction for "they are"): "They're coming soon."

Its (possessive pronoun): "The dog lost its bone."
It's (contraction for "it is"): "It's a shame you can't come."

Parallelism

Parallelism occurs when compound verbs or verbals express an action taking place at the same time or in the same tense. When such is the case, the verb and/or verbals must be in the same, or parallel, form.

Example: Gail sings and dances.
("Sings" and "dances" are parallel forms of the verb.)

Types of Parallel Structure

1. Coordinated ideas of equal rank, connected by and, but, or, or nor
Correct:
Earl loves bicycling and climbing.
(A gerund is paired with a gerund.)

Earl loves to bicycle and to climb.
(An infinitive is paired with an infinitive.)
Incorrect:
Earl loves bicycling and to climb.
(Here, a gerund is paired with an infinitive.)

2. Compared ideas
Correct:
I like officiating basketball more than playing basketball.
(A gerund is paired with a gerund.)

I like to officiate basketball more than I like to play basketball.
(An infinitive is paired with an infinitive.)
Incorrect:
I like to officiate basketball more than I like playing basketball.
(An infinitive is paired with a gerund.)

3. Correlative ideas are linked with the correlative conjunctions both...and, either...or, neither...nor, and not only...but also.
Correct:
Josh is talented not only as a basketball player, but also as a tennis player.
(A noun is paired with a noun.)

Josh is talented not only at playing basketball, but also at playing tennis.
(A gerund is paired with a gerund.
Incorrect:
Josh is talented not only as a basketball player, but also at playing tennis.
(A noun is paired with a gerund.)

NOTE: Place correlative conjunctions immediately before the parallel terms:

Incorrect:
Brad has both experienced the sweet taste of success and the bitterness of defeat.

Revised:
Brad has experienced both the sweet taste of success and the bitterness of defeat.

Misplaced Modifiers

Misplaced modifiers are single words, phrases, or clauses that do not point clearly to the word or words they modify. As a rule, related words usually should be kept together.

Six Helpful Tips for Placing Modifiers Correctly

1. Limiting modifiers (only, even, almost, nearly, just) should be placed in front of the words they modify.

Unclear:
You will only need to plant one package of seeds.

Revised:
You will need to plant only one package of seeds.
("Only" modifies "one," not "need.")

2. Place modifying phrases and clauses so that readers can see at a glance what they modify.

Unclear:
The robber was described as a tall man with a black moustache weighing 150 pounds.

Revised:
The robber was described as a six-foot-tall man weighing 150 pounds with a black moustache.
("150 pounds" describes the man, not the moustache.)

3. Sentences should flow from subject to verb to object without lengthy detours along the way. When adverbs separate subject from verb, verb from object, or helping-verb from main-verb, the result can be awkward.

Unclear:
John, after trying to reach the ball, decided to get a ladder.

Revised:
After trying to reach the ball, John decided to get a ladder.
(Subject and verb are no longer separated.)

4. Infinitives ("to" + verb, such as: "to go," "to catch," "to shout") usually should not be split unless necessary, especially in formal writing.

Unclear:
The patient should try to, if possible, avoid going up and down stairs.

Revised:
If possible, the patient should try to avoid going up and down stairs.

5. Dangling modifiers are word groups (usually introductory) that may seem confusing to some people if they fail to refer logically to any word in a sentence. Rewording a sentence may help to clarify the meaning.

Unclear:
Deciding to join the navy, the recruiter happily pumped Joe's hand.
(The recruiter is not deciding to join the navy; Joe is.)

Revised:
The recruiter happily pumped Joe's hand after learning that Joe had decided to join the navy.

Unclear:
Though only sixteen, UCLA accepted Martha's application.
(UCLA is not sixteen; Martha is.)

Revised:
Though Martha was only sixteen, UCLA accepted her application.

6. Dangling modifiers can be repaired by restructuring the sentence, but this restructuring may vary according to the writer's stylistic preferences.

Possibly unclear:
When watching films, commercials are especially irritating.

a) One option would be to change the subject so that it names the actor that the modifier implies:

When watching films, I find commercials especially irritating.

b) Another option would be to turn the modifier into a word group that includes the actor:

When I am watching films, commercials are especially irritating.

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that does not connect grammatically with what it is intended to modify. The problem is most common with adjective participial phrases, especially when they open the sentence. Such open participial phrases can be taken to modify the noun, but when the noun is not present in the sentence, then the phrase becomes nonsensical.

Problems with Dangling Modifiers

There are two kinds of problems with dangling modifiers:

1) A word (often a pronoun) has been left out, so that the introductory phrase does not complement what follows.

Unclear:
Running across the street, the bus left.

2) A phrase or word in a sentence is too far from the idea that it modifies.

Unclear:
A dependable car, the family decided to buy the mini-van.

Correcting the Problem

There are two ways to correct dangling modifiers.

1) The main clause can be left alone and the participial construction altered, usually to an adverbial phrase.

Unclear:
Running down the street, the house was on fire.

Revised:
When the man ran down the street, the house was on fire.

2) The participial construction can be allowed to stand and the main clause modified so that the modified object is in the subject position.

Revised:
Running down the street, the man saw the house was on fire.

Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a part of a sentence punctuated as if it were a complete sentence. It is a group of words that begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, exclamation point, or a question mark, but does not express a complete thought

Phrases as Sentence Fragments
1) A word group is a sentence fragment if it lacks a subject.
Swam into the ocean.

(NOTE: Sentences in the imperative mood (e.g., "Swim into the ocean!") have, by convention, an understood "you" for a subject and are not considered fragments).

2) A word group is also a sentence fragment if it lacks a verb.
The white plastic chair.

3) A word group missing both a subject and a predicate is a sentence fragment.
As in the lives of many.

Clauses as Sentence Fragments
(Warning: These are only guidelines for spotting a sentence fragment, not hard and fast rules.)

A clue that a group of words may be a sentence fragment is that it begins with a subordinator. Often, when a group of words begins with a subordinator, it is a dependent clause, a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence. Some common subordinators are when, until, after, before, however, while, because, since, though, although, if, so that, so, and where.

EX: Until the day is over.

Another clue is that the word group begins with a relative pronoun. Some common relative pronouns are that, who, whose, whom, which, and when.
EX: Whom Kelly had known since the third grade.

Using and Misusing Sentence Fragments

Use--Students should understand that sentence fragments can be used in writing, but that they should be used rarely and cautiously. Pointing out these structures in literature read and written in class might be a good way to identify the difference between strong use of sentence fragments and weak sentence fragments.

EX: Every life is many days, day after day. We walk through ourselves, meeting robbers, ghosts, giants, old men, young men, wives, widows, brothers-in-love. But always meeting ourselves.
(James Joyce)

The last word group is a sentence fragment. A sentence fragment is used here for emphasis. In this example, the meaning of the fragment is clear.

Misuse--It is very easy to misuse sentence fragments. The following piece of writing shows how this misuse can make writing unclear and disorganized.

EX: It is my opinion that the baseball strike should end. A salary cap is not a bad idea. After all, the players receive huge salaries. More money than the president.

The last word group is a sentence fragment.

Fused Sentences, Run-Ons, and Comma Splices

A fused sentence (also known as a run-on sentence) occurs when two independent clauses are joined without any punctuation or connecting word between them.

It was close to fall the trees were losing their leaves.

A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined by only a comma.

It was close to fall, the trees were losing their leaves.

Six Ways to Eliminate Fused Sentences and Comma Splices

1) Separate the clause into two sentences:
It was close to fall. The trees were losing their leaves.

2) Link the clauses with a semicolon:
It was close to fall; the trees were losing their leaves.

3) Link the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction:
It was close to fall, so the trees were beginning to lose their leaves.

4) Recast the two independent clauses as one independent clause:
It was the time of year when trees begin to lose their leaves.

5) Recast one of the independent clauses as a dependent clause:
Because it was close to fall, the trees were losing their leaves.

6) Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb (also, anyway, besides, furthermore, incidentally, moreover, otherwise, and thus) or a transitional expression (after all, by the way, for example, in other words, and on the other hand) placed between independent clauses:
It was close to fall; consequently, the trees were losing their leaves

Sentences and Sentence Elements

Sentence Types

Sentences can be either simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.

The Simple Sentence
Simple sentences have only one independent clause. There are no dependent clauses, and the sentence must be limited to one subject and one predicate. The sentence may contain modifying words or phrases: Grammar class is boring. "Magma" is a French progressive rock band.

The Compound Sentence
Compound sentences are composed of two or more independent clauses, which are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. One should always use a comma before any coordinating conjunction that connects two independent clauses: Sissy likes "Magma," but she thinks grammar class is boring. Timmy likes grammar class, so he does not like "Magma."

The Complex Sentence
Complex sentences use one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses: When Sissy is in grammar class, she often dreams of the next Magma show. ("When Sissy..." is a dependent clause, "she often..." is an independent clause.)

The Compound-Complex Sentence
The compound-complex sentence joins a compound and a complex sentence together. It should contain two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clause: Magma sings in a language they created, and they feel that proper grammar has no place at their shows, which are often quite obnoxious.

Comma Usage

For proper comma usage with each sentence type, see Restrictive and Non-restrictive Clauses.

Subjects and Predicates

In English, every sentence has two essential parts: a complete subject and a complete predicate.

Subjects

The complete subject is the simple subject (a noun or a pronoun) plus any words or group of words modifying the simple subject that tells who or what the sentence is about:

The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour.

To find the complete subject, ask Who? or What? insert the verb, and finish the question. The answer is the complete subject:

What usually lasts about an hour? The high from my Mountain Dew.

The simple subject is the essential noun, pronoun, or group of words acting as a noun that cannot be left out of the complete subject. In order to identify it, remove the complements and modifiers and whatever left is the simple subject:

The	high	from my Mountain Dew	usually lasts about an hour.
(article)	(simple subject)	(prepositional phrase)	(predicate)

TIP: Does the sentence make sense with just the word ("high") identified as the simple subject?
(The) high usually lasts about an hour.

Additional Facts About Subjects
1) The "Understood You"
Sometimes, as in the case of imperative sentences (see verb mood ), the subject does not actually appear in the sentence. At such times the invisible subject is called the "understood you":
(You) Rent "The Last of the Mohicans" from the video store.

2) Positioning
Although the subject most commonly appears before the verb, it can also appear after it appears in

	-sentences that begin with "there is" or "there are." "There" is an expletive or empty word which simply gets the sentence started: There are precious few hills in Illinois . vs. Precious few hills are in Illinois .
	-sentences that are inverted for effect: Happy is the wife of Harrison Ford. vs. The wife of Harrison Ford is happy.

Predicates
The complete predicate is the verb plus its objects, complements, and adverbial modifiers that tell what the complete subject does or is:

The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour.

To find the complete predicate, ask What does the subject (the high) do? (It) usually lasts about an hour.

The simple predicate is the essential verb or verb phrase that cannot be left out of the complete predicate. Again, remove the modifiers and complements to identify it:

The	high	from my Mountain Dew	usually	lasts	about an hour
(article)	(simple subject)	(prepositional phrase)	(adverb)	(simple predicate)	(prepositional phrase)

TIP: Does the sentence make sense with just the word identified as the simple predicate?

The high from my Mountain Dew lasts.

Compound Subjects and Predicates

Although the examples so far have contained only one subject and one verb, a sentence may contain a compound subject, a compound predicate, or both.

The compound subject consists of two or more subjects that have the same verb and are joined by a conjunction such as "and" or "or": Spencer and Annie wagged their tails.

The compound predicate consists of two or more verbs that have the same subject and are joined by a conjunction such as "and" or "or": I came, saw, and conquered.

Active and Passive Voice

Voice The voice of a verb tells whether the subject of the sentence performs or receives the action. In English there are two voices, passive and active.

Active Voice In active voice, the subject performs the action expressed by the verb: The student wrote a song.

Passive Voice In passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed by the verb: A song was written by the student.

Forming Tenses of Passive Verbs
The passive voice always consists of two parts: a form of the verb "to be" + past participle:

Tense	Passive voice form
Present	it is cleaned
Past	it was cleaned
Future	it will be cleaned
Present perfect	it has been cleaned
Past perfect	it had been cleaned
Future perfect	it will have been cleaned

Uses of Passive Voice
Use the passive voice to:

	Call attention to receiver of the action rather than the performer: The professor was hit by three snowballs.
	Point out the receiver of the action when performer is unknown or unimportant: A love letter was slipped under the door. The signs will be posted.
	Avoid calling attention to the performer of the action (known as the "institutional passive"): The fines will be collected on Monday.

Active and Passive Voice in Writing
The choice between using the active or passive voice in writing is a matter of style, not correctness. However, most handbooks recommend using active voice, which they describe as more natural, direct, lively, and succinct. The passive voice is considered wordy and weak (except when used in cases above). Examine the following examples.

weak, passive:
The skater was slammed into the wall by Maria.
strong, active:
Maria slammed the skater into the wall.

weak, passive:
The book was enjoyed by me because the events of her childhood were described so well by the author.
strong, active:
I enjoyed the book because the author described the events of her childhood so well.

Hints for identifying the Passive Voice

	An active verb may or may not have a direct object, but the passive verb almost never does.
	"It is...That" construction (It is clear that... It is noted...)
	Use of the verbs To Be, Make, or Have (Passive: Your exits should be made quickly. Active: Leave quickly.)
	Endings that turn verbs into abstract nouns: -ion,-ing,-ment:

Passive: When application of force is used, the lid will open.
Active: Apply force to open the lid.

Complements

A complement is called a complement because it completes the predicate in a sentence. There are two kinds of complements: object complements and subject complements.

Object Complements
An object complement follows the direct object and modifies or refers to the direct object. An object complement can be an adjective, a noun, or a word or word group acting as an adjective or noun:

If you elect me president, I'll keep the unions satisfied.
("President" is an object complement referring to the direct object "me." "Satisfied" is an object complement modifying the direct object "unions.")

The students elected Mary president.
("President" is an object complement referring to the direct object "Mary.")

Wool socks will keep your feet very warm.
("Very warm" is an object complement modifying the direct object "your feet.")

Subject Complements
A subject complement follows a linking verb and modifies or refers to the subject. A subject complement can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, or a word or word group acting as an adjective or noun:

I am a teacher, but I am not yet experienced.

("Teacher" and "experienced" are both subject complements that
modify the subject "I.")

Subject complements have two subgroups, predicate adjectives and predicate nouns.

A predicate adjective is a subject complement that is an adjective (see appositives):

I am not yet experienced.

("Experienced" is a predicate adjective that modifies the subject "I.")

A predicate noun (Nominative) is a subject complement that is a noun:

I am a teacher.

("Teacher" is a predicate noun that refers to the subject "I.")

Direct and Indirect Objects

A direct object is the word or words in a sentence designating the person or thing receiving the action of a transitive verb: The boy broke the dish.

An indirect object comes before the direct object. It tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is being done: Sing me a song. He feeds the turtle lettuce.

Appositives

Appositives are two words or word groups which mean the same thing and are placed together. Appositives identify or explain the nouns or pronouns which they modify:
Our teacher, Professor Pemberton, loves grammar.

We can say that "Professor Pemberton" is an appositive or is in apposition to "our teacher." "Professor Hawisher" identifies or explains "teacher.'

An appositive phrase includes an appositive and its modifiers:

My favorite place, the English building, is located on the Quad, a grassy square in the middle of the campus.

A restrictive appositive is necessary to maintain the meaning of the sentence and does not require commas. Usually, a restrictive appositive is a single word closely related to the preceding word. It "restricts" or narrows the meaning of the word it modifies:

The musician Harry Connick will come to Champaign .
("Harry Connick" restricts the general term "musician.")

My sister Mary has four dogs.

A nonrestrictive appositive may be omitted without changing the basic meaning of the sentence. A nonrestrictive appositive is separated by commas. Commas are always used when the word which the appositive modifies is a proper noun:

Harry Connick, the musician, will come to Champaign .
("Musician" offers additional information about the specific name "Harry Connick")

There are many parades for Mardi Gras, a religious festival celebrating the last day before Lent, in New Orleans , a city in Louisiana .

Additional note
A dash or colon, as well as a comma, can be used to set off appositives:

For the prisoner there was only one goal--escape.

source: grammar handbook